Theory of Stress

A theory is an explanation of observations (Babbie, 2004) that can show us how to intervene (Burr, 1995), predict behavior, and guide research. There are different types of theories. Stress theory is a social theory that explains observations about stress, an aspect of social life. Theories use concepts that represent classes of phenomena to explain observations. A variable, a special type of concept that varies, is composed of a set of attributes (Babbie, 2004). The attributes male and female compose the variable gender as gender varies from male to female. When we put together concepts showing their relationships, we form conceptual frameworks or models. 

Individual Stress Theory

Contributions to individual stress theory came largely from psychobiology, sociology, psychiatry, and anthropology. The earlier researchers were psychobiologists, followed by sociologists, psychiatrists, and anthropologists. The Figure for a timeline of individual stress theory development. We begin with the contributions of psychobiology.

Psychobiology

Early psychobiologists found a connection between emotional stress and physiology. Cannon (1929) did early experimental work showing that stimuli associated with emotional arousal led to changes in physiological processes. Later, the relationship between ordinary life events and illness was demonstrated. More recently technological advances facilitated research showing specific physiological responses to stress. Shortly after the work of early psychobiologists, sociologists began contributing to the stress research.

Sociology

Lindemann (1944), a sociologist, described individual bereavement experiences of surviving relatives of those who died in the Melody Lounge Cocoanut Grove fire. In studying surviving relatives of the people who perished in the fire, he found that those who had positive outcomes had gone through a process. The grieving process that he observed is discussed later.

Psychiatry

Early psychiatrists contributing to stress theory included Tyhurst (1951, 1957a, 1957b), Caplan (1964, 1974), Holmes and Rahe (1967), and Sifneos (1960). While Tyhurst (1951, 1957a, 1957b) developed a model describing the natural history of individual reactions to disaster, Holmes and Rahe (1967) conceived of life events as stressors, which require change in the individual’s ongoing life pattern. Their Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) (Holmes & Rahe, 1967) the scale is used to assess vulnerability of individuals and cited in the literature (e.g., Lewis, Lewis, Daniels, & D’Andrea, 2003). Caplan’s (1974) focus on prevention of mental health disturbances was different from that of Tyhurst (1951, 1957a, 1957b) and Holmes and Rahe (1967). He developed a stage theory of crisis development (Caplan, 1964), Although psychiatric models dominated the 1950s and 1960s, the 1980s saw a contribution to stress theory from anthropology.

Anthropology

Hoff (1989, 1995, 2001), a nurse anthropologist, developed the Crisis Paradigm to explain what happens when individuals experience crises and to help manage individual crises.

Family Stress Theory

Independent of the individual stress research summarized above, a considerable body of stress theory and research evolved within the family field (McCubbin, Patterson, & Wilson, 1981). Burr (1989) divided the development of family stress theory into three stages or eras.

The First Era (1920s to Late 1940s)

The first era in the development of family stress theory began with research in the 1920s and ended with efforts toward theory development in the mid-1940s (Burr, 1989). Graduate students did much of the early research in the 1920s while Angell, a sociologist from the University of Michigan, wrote one of the first published studies on family stress in 1936. The research of Cavan and Ranck (1938) from the University of Chicago followed. Both studies examined the effects of the Great Depression of the 1930s on families. Both also studied families on the sociopsychological/family level using the case study approach and inductive (specific to general) method to examine the effects of the stressor of the sudden loss or reduction of income on families as well as individuals (Boss, 1987).

Angell  (1936) found that family integration and adaptability had an impact on how families reacted to the sudden loss of income. He defined integration as the family’s “bonds of coherence and unity” consisting of “common interests, affection, and a sense of economic interdependence” and adaptability as flexibility (vs. rigidity) in a family’s structure. Adaptability consisted of philosophy of life (materialistic vs. nonmaterialistic), family mores (traditional vs. nontraditional), and responsibility (irresponsibility vs. responsibility). He called the more adaptable families “plastic” families, which were the nonmaterialistic, nontraditional, responsible families. Angell distinguished three degrees of integration and adaptability producing nine types of families (highly integrated, highly adaptable; highly integrated, moderately adaptable; highly integrated, inadaptable; moderately integrated, highly adaptable; moderately integrated, moderately adaptable.

Summary of the History of Stress Theory

Individual stress theory and family stress theory had parallel developments beginning in the early 1920s. Individual stress theorists came mainly from the fields of psychobiology, sociology, psychiatry, and anthropology. Family stress theorists came mainly from sociology, psychiatric social work, nursing, and family science. The development of family stress theory occurred in four eras. In the models there are inconsistencies in definitions of concepts. For example, early family stress researchers used the term  crisis for what we now label  stressor in stress theory, leading to some confusion among those studying the theory.

Source : H.  W. Krohne. (2002). Stress and Coping Theories. University Mainz Germany